MJC-4: History of English Literature ,long Questions and answer of MJC 4

MJC-4: History of English Literature (Unit III)

Detailed Long Answers

1. The University Wits and Their Contribution to English Drama

The term "University Wits" refers to a specific group of late 16th-century English playwrights and pamphleteers who were educated at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. This group, which included prominent figures such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene, George Peele, Thomas Lodge, and Thomas Nashe, played a pivotal role in transforming English drama from its medieval origins into the sophisticated art form that paved the way for William Shakespeare. Before their arrival, English drama was largely formless, often crude, and lacked literary finesse, consisting mostly of morality plays and interludes. The University Wits bridged the gap between the academic, classical drama of the universities and the popular, often unruly, public entertainment of London.

Their contribution to English drama was multifaceted, fundamentally altering the structure, language, and themes of the plays produced during the Elizabethan era. Perhaps their most significant achievement was the refinement of the dramatic medium itself. They introduced coherence and plot construction that earlier plays lacked. For instance, George Peele contributed a sense of sweet melodious verse, while Robert Greene brought a refreshing portrayal of rural English life and female characters, elements that Shakespeare would later perfect in his romantic comedies. Thomas Kyd, though not always grouped strictly with the others due to his uncertain university background, established the genre of the "Revenge Tragedy" with The Spanish Tragedy, introducing a complex plot structure and the psychological exploration of revenge that would influence Hamlet.

However, the towering figure among them was undoubtedly Christopher Marlowe. Marlowe revolutionized English drama by introducing the "Mighty Line," a powerful and majestic form of blank verse that liberated theatrical language from the rhyming doggerel of the past. In plays like Dr. Faustus and Tamburlaine, Marlowe focused on the tragic hero who is consumed by an overwhelming passion—be it for power, knowledge, or gold. This focus on individual human potential and tragedy raised the intellectual bar of the theater. Collectively, the University Wits prepared the ground for the Golden Age of English literature. They combined the vigor of the native English tradition with the discipline of classical learning, handing over to Shakespeare a pliable, expressive medium and a theater-going public that was eager for complex storytelling.

2. Characteristics of Jacobean Drama with Special Reference to Revenge Tragedy

The Jacobean period, covering the reign of King James I (1603–1625), marked a distinct shift in the tone and temper of English drama compared to the preceding Elizabethan era. While the Elizabethan age was characterized by a spirit of nationalism, optimism, and expansion, the Jacobean era became increasingly introspective, cynical, and melancholic. The drama of this period reflects a growing sense of disillusionment with the court and society. The exuberant romanticism of Shakespeare’s earlier comedies gave way to darker, more satirical, and often macabre themes. Playwrights began to explore the corrupting nature of power, sexual decadence, and the moral decay of the Italianate court, which often served as a thinly veiled critique of the English court itself.

A central feature of Jacobean drama is the prevalence of the Revenge Tragedy, a genre that reached its zenith during this time. Unlike the earlier revenge plays which focused primarily on the act of retribution, Jacobean revenge tragedies, such as John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi and The White Devil, or Cyril Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy, delved deep into the psychological and moral consequences of vengeance. These plays are often set in a claustrophobic world of spies, madness, and illicit lust. The atmosphere is heavy with gloom and a sense of inevitable doom. The "revenger" in these plays is often a malcontent, a character who is morally ambiguous and becomes as villainous as the person he seeks to punish, blurring the lines between justice and crime.

Furthermore, Jacobean drama is noted for its sensationalism and violence. The stage was frequently filled with scenes of torture, poisoning, and madness, intended to shock the audience. Yet, amidst this horror, there was a profound poetic intensity. Webster, for instance, saw the skull beneath the skin, and his plays are famous for their brooding meditation on death and the vanity of human existence. The language became more dense, knotted, and intellectual, moving away from the lyrical sweetness of the Elizabethans. Ultimately, Jacobean drama presents a world where traditional moral order is fracturing, reflecting the political and religious tensions that would eventually lead to the English Civil War.

3. Main Features of Metaphysical Poetry with Reference to John Donne

Metaphysical poetry represents a bold break from the smooth, mellifluous traditions of Elizabethan verse, emerging in the early 17th century with John Donne as its leading figure. The term "metaphysical" was originally applied disparagingly by critics like Dryden and Johnson to describe a style they found too intellectual and obscure, but it has since come to denote a poetry of great psychological depth and complexity. The primary characteristic of this school is the "unification of sensibility," a phrase coined by T.S. Eliot to describe how these poets fused thought and feeling. For Donne, an intellectual idea was as emotionally experienced as the scent of a rose; his poetry is a blend of passion and ratiocination, where the argument is as important as the emotion.

Central to Metaphysical poetry is the use of the "conceit," a far-fetched and elaborate comparison between two highly dissimilar things. Unlike the conventional similes of the Elizabethans, Donne’s conceits startle the reader into a new perspective. A famous example is in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning," where Donne compares the souls of two lovers to the two legs of a compass; though they are separate, they are inextricably linked, with one leaning after the other. This intellectual wit is often deployed to explore complex themes of love and religion. Donne treats God with the intimacy of a lover and lovers with the reverence due to God, often using legal, medical, or scientific terminology to make his case.

The style of Metaphysical poetry is also distinctively rugged and conversational. Donne rejected the regular, honeyed meters of Spenser in favor of rhythms that mimicked the fluctuations of actual speech. His opening lines are often dramatic and abrupt, such as "For God's sake hold your tongue, and let me love." This dramatic immediacy grabs the reader's attention instantly. The poetry is difficult and demands mental effort; it is argumentative, analytical, and ironic. Whether discussing the sanctity of the bedroom in "The Sun Rising" or the spiritual struggle in "Batter my heart, three-person'd God," Donne and the Metaphysical poets privileged the complexity of the human experience over the smoothness of poetic form.

4. Rise and Development of the Restoration Comedy of Manners

The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 brought about a dramatic revolution in English literature, most visibly in the theater. After eighteen years of Puritan silence, the theaters reopened to an audience that was predominantly aristocratic and court-centric. This specific social environment gave birth to the "Comedy of Manners," a genre that mirrored the lifestyle, ethos, and vices of the upper classes. The Comedy of Manners is characterized by its focus on the sophisticated, artificial society of London, where wit, fashion, and social intrigue were paramount. It turned its back on the romantic idealism of Shakespeare and the moral weight of Jonson, choosing instead to portray a world where manners were more important than morals, and style was valued over substance.

The development of this genre can be traced through the works of playwrights like William Wycherley and William Congreve. The central themes revolved around the "sex antagonism" between witty lovers, the pursuit of money through marriage, and the exposure of affectation. Characters were often types—the fop, the rake, the country bumpkin, and the witty heroine. In plays like Wycherley’s The Country Wife, the cynicism of the age is laid bare; love is treated as a game of strategy, and marriage is often viewed as a restrictive social contract rather than a spiritual union. The dialogue is the genre’s greatest strength: sparkling, rapid-fire, and full of repartee. This intellectual fencing match between characters became the hallmark of the period.

The Comedy of Manners reached its perfection in William Congreve’s The Way of the World (1700). While earlier plays were often criticized for their immorality and licentiousness, Congreve brought a polish and a slightly more humane touch to the genre. However, the sheer immorality of the Restoration stage eventually led to a backlash, most notably Jeremy Collier’s 1698 attack on the "Profaneness and Immorality of the English Stage." This criticism marked the beginning of the end for the Comedy of Manners, as the rising middle class demanded a more sentimental and moralistic drama in the 18th century. Nevertheless, the Restoration Comedy remains a brilliant, if cynical, record of a unique moment in English social history.

5. The Impact of the Puritan Age on English Literature

The Puritan Age (roughly 1625–1660) was a period of intense political and religious upheaval in England, culminating in the Civil War and the execution of Charles I. The influence of Puritanism on literature was profound, functioning as both a restrictive force and a unique source of inspiration. The most immediate and negative impact was on the drama. The Puritans viewed the theater as a den of vice and immorality, leading to the closure of all theaters in 1642. This act effectively killed the flourishing tradition of English Renaissance drama, creating a vacuum that would only be filled after the Restoration. Consequently, the literary output of the age shifted significantly away from the stage and toward poetry and prose.

However, the Puritan spirit also infused literature with a new moral seriousness and spiritual intensity. The literature of this period is characterized by a somber tone, a focus on the individual’s relationship with God, and a rejection of the ornamental excesses of the earlier age. This is most evident in the works of John Milton, the giant of the Puritan age. His epic, Paradise Lost, is the supreme expression of the Puritan worldview, grappling with themes of obedience, sin, and redemption on a cosmic scale. Milton’s work demonstrates that the Puritan mind, though often seen as joyless, was capable of immense artistic grandeur and intellectual depth.

In the realm of prose, the Puritan emphasis on the Bible and the need for religious instruction led to the development of a simpler, more direct style of writing. John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress is the finest example of this; it is an allegory of the Christian soul’s journey written in the plain, sturdy language of the common people. Furthermore, the political conflicts of the era gave rise to a proliferation of pamphlets and polemical prose. Writers used the pen as a weapon to argue for liberty, freedom of the press (as in Milton’s Areopagitica), and religious toleration. Thus, while the Puritan Age temporarily silenced the drama, it deepened the moral consciousness of English literature and democratized prose.

6. A Critical Note on the Cavalier Poets

The Cavalier Poets were a group of lyric poets associated with the court of King Charles I during the 17th century. The term "Cavalier" was originally a political label used to describe the Royalists who supported the King against the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) during the Civil War. In literature, the group includes figures such as Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and Thomas Carew. Unlike their contemporaries, the Metaphysical poets, who were known for their complex intellect and obscure imagery, the Cavaliers valued clarity, elegance, and classical polish. They called themselves the "Sons of Ben," acknowledging their literary debt to Ben Jonson, whose structured and social verse they sought to emulate.

The primary themes of Cavalier poetry are love, beauty, loyalty, and the fleeting nature of time. They are famous for the "Carpe Diem" (Seize the Day) motif, which urges readers to enjoy the pleasures of life before death takes them away. Robert Herrick’s line "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may" is the quintessential expression of this philosophy. Their poetry is generally lighthearted, witty, and secular, often set against the backdrop of the grim political reality of the Civil War. Despite the war, their verses often maintained a distinctive grace and nonchalance, a quality known as "sprezzatura."

However, it would be a mistake to dismiss Cavalier poetry as merely trivial. Beneath the surface of gallantry and romance, there is often a strong code of honor and duty. Richard Lovelace’s famous lines, "I could not love thee, Dear, so much, / Loved I not Honour more," reveal that for the Cavalier, personal integrity and loyalty to the King were paramount, even above romantic love. While they lacked the spiritual depth of Milton or the intellectual fire of Donne, the Cavalier poets contributed significantly to the development of the English lyric. They refined the English language, making it more flexible and musical, and left behind a legacy of some of the most memorable and quotable songs in the language.

7. Evaluate the Contribution of John Dryden to Restoration Literature

John Dryden dominates the literary landscape of the Restoration period so completely that the era is often referred to as the "Age of Dryden." He was a man of versatile genius—a poet, a dramatist, a satirist, and a critic—who shaped the literary tastes of his time. Dryden is often credited with establishing the Neoclassical tradition in England, advocating for order, balance, and correctness in writing. As a poet, he perfected the Heroic Couplet, turning it into a precise instrument for satire and argumentation. His political satires, most notably Absalom and Achitophel, are masterpieces of the genre, where he uses biblical allegory to comment on contemporary politics with biting wit and devastating logic.

In the field of drama, Dryden was prolific and influential. He was a pioneer of the "Heroic Tragedy," a genre characterized by superhuman protagonists, bombastic rhetoric, and conflicts between love and honor. Although these plays often seem artificial to modern readers, they were immensely popular in his day. Perhaps more significant was his return to blank verse in his later tragedy, All for Love, an adaptation of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. By rewriting Shakespeare to fit the neoclassical unities of time, place, and action, Dryden demonstrated the changing sensibilities of the Restoration audience, which preferred structure over the sprawling genius of the Elizabethans.

However, Dryden’s most enduring contribution may be in literary criticism. Dr. Johnson famously called him "the father of English criticism." In his Essay of Dramatic Poesy, Dryden offered the first comparative review of English, French, and Classical drama. He wrote in a prose style that was modern, clear, and conversational, breaking away from the ornate and convoluted syntax of earlier writers. He defended the English dramatic tradition, particularly Shakespeare, against the strict rules of the French critics. By establishing a standard for critical evaluation and refining the English language for both poetry and prose, Dryden laid the foundation for the entire 18th-century literary establishment.

8. The Decline of Drama After Shakespeare (The Decadent Drama)

The period following the retirement and death of William Shakespeare is often characterized by a gradual but distinct decline in the quality of English drama, leading up to the closing of the theaters in 1642. While the Jacobean and Caroline eras produced brilliant individual works, the overall trend was one of decay or "decadence." The primary reason for this decline was the loss of the universal appeal that Shakespearean drama possessed. Shakespeare wrote for a broad cross-section of society, from the groundlings to the nobility. His successors, however, began to cater increasingly to the aristocratic tastes of the courtier class, resulting in plays that were more artificial and less rooted in common humanity.

One of the hallmarks of this decadent drama was the reliance on sensationalism over substance. In the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, who were immensely popular during this time, the focus shifted from deep characterization to theatrical effect. Complex moral questions were replaced by contrived situations and emotional excess. The plots became looser and more episodic, often designed merely to provide a series of shocks or sentimental moments. The tragic grandeur of Macbeth or Othello was replaced by the "blood and thunder" of lesser revenge tragedies, where violence was depicted for its own sake rather than as a necessary part of the tragic structure.

Furthermore, the moral tone of the drama deteriorated. The healthy, robust humor of the Elizabethan stage gave way to a more cynical and often licentious wit. The treatment of sexual themes became more explicit and gratuitous, reflecting the corrupt atmosphere of the court. This moral laxity provided ammunition for the Puritan critics, who had long opposed the stage. As the gap between the theater and the moral sentiments of the middle class widened, the drama lost its vital connection to the nation’s life. By the time the Puritans shut down the theaters in 1642, English drama was already a shadow of its former self, exhausted of its creative energy and moral purpose.

9. The Development of Prose During the Restoration Period

The Restoration period is a landmark era in the history of English prose. Before this time, English prose—as seen in the works of Milton or Browne—was often latinized, convoluted, and heavily ornate. Sentences were long, complex, and filled with subordinate clauses, making them difficult to read. The Restoration brought about a revolution in style, moving towards clarity, simplicity, and precision. This shift was driven largely by the changing spirit of the age, which valued reason, common sense, and scientific inquiry over the emotional and religious fervor of the past.

A major influence on this development was the establishment of the Royal Society in 1662. The Society explicitly demanded from its members a "close, naked, natural way of speaking," rejecting all rhetorical flourishes and metaphors in favor of mathematical plainness. This scientific demand for exactness seeped into literary prose. Writers began to use shorter sentences and a more conversational tone. John Dryden was a central figure in this transition; his critical essays are written in a style that is easy, graceful, and modern. He proved that English prose could be a flexible instrument for debate and analysis, capable of expressing complex critical thoughts without obscurity.

Religion and philosophy also contributed to the rise of modern prose. John Bunyan showed the power of simple, biblical English in The Pilgrim’s Progress, proving that the vernacular could convey profound spiritual truths. Meanwhile, philosophers like John Locke and Thomas Hobbes used the new plain style to discuss politics and human understanding, making their ideas accessible to a wider readership. The rise of journalism and the coffee-house culture also demanded a prose style that was readable and direct. By the end of the Restoration period, English prose had shed its clumsy, ancient armor and emerged as a modern, efficient vehicle for communication, ready for the great age of the novel in the 18th century.

10. Comparison Between Elizabethan Drama and Restoration Drama

Comparing Elizabethan and Restoration drama highlights two vastly different worlds in English literary history. Elizabethan drama (approx. 1558–1603) was a national art form. It appealed to all classes of society, from the illiterate groundlings standing in the pit to the Queen in the royal box. Consequently, the plays were broad in scope, mixing tragedy and comedy, high philosophy and low humor, poetry and prose. It was a drama of passion, imagination, and romance, unrestricted by rigid rules. Shakespeare’s plays, with their sprawling plots and disregard for the classical unities of time and place, epitomize this boundless energy and universal appeal.

In contrast, Restoration drama (1660–1700) was essentially a class drama. When the theaters reopened, they catered almost exclusively to the aristocracy and the court of Charles II. The middle and lower classes, largely influenced by Puritanism, stayed away. As a result, the drama became narrower in scope and more artificial. The dominant genre, the Comedy of Manners, focused on the external lives of the upper class—their fashions, intrigues, and wit. Unlike the romantic, nature-filled settings of Elizabethan comedy (like the Forest of Arden), Restoration comedy was set in drawing rooms, coffee houses, and London parks. It was intellectual, cynical, and witty, lacking the emotional depth and poetic grandeur of the Elizabethan age.

Structurally, Restoration drama was more disciplined, influenced heavily by French Neoclassicism. Playwrights like Dryden attempted to adhere to the unities and often wrote in rhymed heroic couplets, a stark contrast to the flexible blank verse of Marlowe and Shakespeare. Furthermore, the introduction of actresses to the stage in the Restoration period (female roles were played by boys in Elizabethan times) changed the dynamic of the plays, allowing for more complex, albeit often more sexualized, female roles. Ultimately, while Elizabethan drama explored the human soul and the cosmos, Restoration drama examined the social manners and the intellect of a specific, privileged society.